Accepting but not engaging with it: Digital participation in local government?run social credit systems in China

Over the past decade, China's central and municipal governments have consistently supported development of social credit systems (SCSs). While research has highlighted Chinese public's high approval backing SCSs, their engagement with these digital projects not been fully explored. Based on 44 semi-structured interviews, our examines citizens' participation in government-run SCSs at local level. Our findings suggest that, despite perceiving as accepting positive, most interviewees do actively engage SCSs. Multiple factors can explain gap between acceptance low rates, including a lack awareness regarding perception that registering maintaining decent score requires major effort, various concerns involving data privacy safety, algorithm accuracy fairness, potential risks, unappealing benefits offered by voluntary aspect participating adds to existing literature governance authoritarian contexts explaining why citizens necessarily state-promoted projects. ??????????????????????????SCS?????????????????SCS?????????????????????????????????44????????????????????????????SCS?????????????????????????????SCS?????????????????????????SCS????????????????????????????SCS??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????SCS?????????????????SCS??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????© 2021 Society Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC). Durante la última década, los gobiernos y de China han apoyado constantemente el desarrollo sistemas crédito (SCS). Si bien investigación ha destacado gran aprobación respaldo del público chino SCS, su compromiso con estos proyectos digitales no se explorado completamente. Con base en entrevistas semiestructuradas, nuestra examina participación ciudadanos chinos SCS administrados por gobierno nivel local. Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que, pesar percibir como receptivos positivos, mayoría entrevistados involucran activamente Múltiples factores pueden explicar brecha entre las altas tasas aceptación bajas participación, incluida falta conocimiento sobre locales, percepción que registrarse mantener un puntaje crediticio decente requiere esfuerzo, varias preocupaciones relacionadas privacidad seguridad datos, precisión equidad algoritmos., riesgos potenciales, beneficios poco atractivos ofrecen aspecto voluntario participar locales. Nuestra suma literatura existente gobernanza contextos autoritarios al qué necesariamente promovidos estado. In 2014, State Council published Planning Outline for Construction Social Credit System (2014-2020) (State Council, 2014), which asserts goal creating national system (SCS) enforce regulations laws within country. However, instead unified standardized mechanism, many different versions mushroomed across China. Existing studies highlight fragmented localized practices around country acknowledge implementation far from straightforward (Drinhausen Brussee, 2021; Knight Creemers, 2021). A growing body studied aspects work variety (Creemers, 2018; Liu, 2019), use state surveillance (Lee, 2019; Liang et al., 2018) (Zhang, 2020), SCSs’ impact society (Knight Kostka Antoine, issues challenges they pose (Chen Cheung, 2017; Ding Zhong, 2021), public perceptions them (Kostka, 2022; Xu 2022). Studies generally confirm support among population Rieger arguing are perceived more an instrument fill regulatory or institutional gaps than tool mass repression. recent reports only small percentage participate SCSs: Reportedly, little 5% Xiamen 15% Hangzhou joined This apparent inconsistency supportive attitude relatively rate is puzzling. Furthermore, governments’ substantial efforts promote implement versus limited scoring make puzzle even salient. study we see such government-led everyday life people's rates consistent facilitation The analysis draws Technology Acceptance Models (TAMs), Unified Theory Use (UTAUT), Diffusion Innovations (DOI), technology rejection framework, calculus, paradox theories. We conducted interviews 2022 wide range cities investigate understanding individual used snowball sampling recruit interview participants conduct Mandarin either presence via online methods (e.g., WeChat voice/video calls). transcribed all into English, coded according questions, categorized themes. Table A1 appendix summarizes interviewees’ demographic information. further examined websites, platforms mobile apps, accounts, mini-programs launched authorities), news articles, policy documents guidelines associated design cities. demonstrating positive attitudes toward did Even few engaging primarily involved superficial, inactive, reluctant participation. argue kinds barriers impede varying degrees, level targeting residents, requiring register security, accuracy, fairness system, benefits/usefulness (largely) nature Below, first review Then draw related theories users’ behaviors outline integrated theoretical framework. section, unpack details hindering Western media tend portray single but some corrected this misrepresentation highlighting multiplicity, variations, complicated 2019). Liu (2019), instance, analyzes distinguishes multiple levels fields society, nationwide blacklists redlists developed several governmental agencies, pilots implemented provinces businesses, organizations, and/or individuals, commercial like Zhima Credit1 (also known Sesame Credit). Many explored designed rating business enterprises organizations (Engelmann Lin Milhaupt, individuals ordinary citizens) received much less attention scholars. One explanation might be imbalance individuals. former attracted scholarly because advanced, progressive, mature manner, latter neglected, ongoing increasing expand (Tsai There also continuing debates over function purpose governments. Prior role argues government develops control 2018). al. (2018), example, conceptualize “state infrastructure” govern rule domains society. Lee (2019) suggests “an datafication, dataveillance, data-driven authoritarianism” enable strengthen its monitoring business, population. Some uses Michel Foucault's term, “panopticon,” metaphor emphasize SCS's being (Laniuk, Apart monitoring, functions mechanism strengthening 2020) market order (Krause Fischer, 2020). government's economic activities, solve problems corruption, food fraud, boost trust subjects (Ding Kostka, Zhang, seen instruments regulating and, especially, steering good behavior curtailing inappropriate utilizing combination rewards punishments (Kostka 2020; Raghunath, Municipal employ highly flexible address new (pandemic-related) ensure businesses follow rules For demonstrate flexibility adaptability swiftly responding COVID-19 pandemic started issue privacy, transparency regard emerging SCSs' massive collection personal information foregrounded risks raised violations security 2021) misuse (Li, 2021).2 Another commonly expressed concern application unfairness often lead Raghunath (2020) writes may widen exacerbate inequality it tends classify people categories based scores. highlights about how scores calculated, algorithms’ technical/algorithmic errors, generate unfair Li, Overall, shows there Instead, devise own pilot meet requirements demands. Despite progress businesses’ individuals’ socioeconomic activities), still faces problems. lacking regions Tsai (2021) clarity top-level (i.e., [2014–2020]) main cause fragmentation confuses requirements. Nonetheless, inevitably become hurdle cross-regional sharing integration. Several China, An survey citizens—especially wealthier, better-educated, urban residents—show 80% respondents approving strongly (2022) corroborates notes positively correlates political system) status higher status, are). attribute students’ culture's emphasis collectivism safety Recent strict censorship hinders seeing repressive surveillance-oriented explains (Xu mainly focused examining general opinion touch citizens’ city Z (an model city), prioritizes makes regard. Z, however, “trial-and-error” stage operations, SCS. Similarly, comparing number registered users (designed cities, Drinhausen Brussee underscore Local authorities’ fear making mistakes, well overreach pushback, previous experience noted primary reasons tentative slow individual-focused partly explained functioning systems. prior worries unclear freedom potentially constrained punishment rules, surveillance, abuse private companies (Liu, having lives, unattractive led Z's anecdotal evidence points weak causing variations next TAMs, UTAUT, DOI, illuminate affecting acceptance, rejection, adoption, nonadoption particular system. (TAMs) (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh Davis, 2000), (UTAUT) (Venkatesh 2003), (DOI) theory (Rogers, 1995) provide framework analyze usage Moreover, proposed Rama Murthy Mani (2013) offers insights specific determinants impeding while contributing reluctance nonparticipation Finally, calculus (Laufer Wolfe, 1977) (Brown, 2001; Norberg 2007) offer guidance delve discrepancy actual Originally Davis (1989), TAM intention accept affected two key determinants: usefulness ease use. speaks perceive using would improve job performance, refers whether (and degree which) think effortless 1989). initial model, scholars extended 2, 3, UTAUT3 adding constructs intentions, influence, facilitating conditions, voluntariness, subjective norms Bala, 2008; 2000; 2003). TAMs UTAUT variance (or inconsistency) 2000). Although inclined adopt technology, mentioned above usefulness, use, influence). Thus, possibility acceptance–usage adoption technologies underscored. addition, DOI 1962) ideas, innovations, spread adopted. Specifically, Rogers (1995) five attributes innovation, (perceived) relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability.4 affect (either negatively) innovation technology). viewed kind newly system), management governance. regard, provides examine (not) adopting user paid phenomenon causes rejection. discern technological fatigue, flexibility, altering base, switching cost loss aversion.5 analytical interrogate According theory, weigh before deciding disclose 1977). Research concerns, if outweigh (Acquisti Grossklags, Krasnova 2010). That is, sacrifice exchange benefits. guides perceive, calculate, costs then decision join insight disparity practices. Initially Brown (2001), type dichotomy behavior. although express nonetheless take actions protect Similar divulge 2005; 2007). strand phenomenon, particularly concentrating e-commerce networking Barnes, 2006; Young Quan-Haase, 2013). Acquisti Grossklags (2005) reveal claimed disclosing get discounts better services shopping context. Barnes (2006) view disclosure important risks. When comes expresses (Rieger respond handle concerns. How benefit–risk SCSs? Is consistency participation? document cities’ SCSs,6 found vary each other similarities certain aspects. Different attach names mostly unique cultures histories Appendix A2 displays cities). great variation terms starting points/basic represented what level/degree credit).7 Additionally, added deducted behaviors) participants. variances, identified incentives allow enjoy. Hangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou stipulate receive when taking transportation, paying bills living expenses, visiting tourist spots, renting applying houses, borrowing shared cars bikes. They enjoy free access services. Notably, reveals unlike policies guidelines, normally foreground part deduction below rarely documents. Therefore, benefit-oriented attract incentivize residents To avoid discouraging residents’ intentionally downplay consequences face. Interviewees’ revolve Laolai8 blacklist Supreme Court district courts imposed defaulters, restrictions consumption first- business-class tickets high-speed trains airplanes). suggested Laolai had recently buzzword numerous television, newspapers, therefore, immediately came mind discussion turned (36 out 44) cities,9 governments, except blacklists. uncommon were confused authorities organizations; mixed up concepts credit,10 Credit. knowledge impacts behaviors, curbing immoral illegal conduct, trust-building interpersonal relationships improving atmosphere (shehui fengqi ????), order, providing convenience lives. coheres views It worth noting object idea mandatory future regarded acceptable. As one interviewee (male, 23, Qingdao) noted, “I haven't [the SCS] asks me so. But day everyone it, I wouldn't definitely register.” Trust believe must reason mandatory”) coupled opinions “It doesn't any negatives common society”) played getting accustomed technologies, Health Code11 (the contact tracing app), travel record tracking apps/mini-programs, facial recognition cameras context, became pivotal determinant (female, 29, Shenyang) don't mandatory, we've quite fact we're continuously required Code. me, it's just app app] download.” concurred viewpoint, implying Code apps/mini-programs significantly spurred happen future. nonobjection (particularly words mind”) implies increasingly tolerant compulsory technologies. here monitor lives.12 findings, indicate seemed blur neglect distinction tended similar tools control. blurred